Qualitative v. quantitative research

                      
                               Khaled Elsharkawy

Elements of Qualitative Research

Purpose of qualitative research 

             Qualitative research is used to understand the reasons behind the opinions, motivations, and detect trends in thought and dive into the depths of the problem (Duffy & Chenail, 2008). The qualitative research explains the full descriptions of the events. In contrast, the quantitative research explains the statistical models to interpret events. Qualitative research also helps to develop ideas and provide insight for potential quantitative research (Goertz & Mahoney, 2013). The main purpose of the using a qualitative research is to describe the qualities, characteristics, behaviors, attitudes, fears, motives, culture, and lifestyles (Volante, 2008).Qualitative research is a journey of individual and collective data. Practice of qualitative research is a dynamic and diverse privileged to explore the systematic compilation of data (Volante, 2008).

            The researcher in qualitative research can provide valuable and meaningful information in many areas of study. Qualitative research is characterized by a lot of quality, reliability, and validity. The study in qualitative research will depend on knowledge, planning, and skill of the researcher. The researcher is often will serve as data collection instrument (Johnston, 2010). There are six characteristics of qualitative research: (1) quality data: first, data is collected in the form of words not numbers (2) then, the researcher then investigates a natural source for all data to emerge from (3)  the researcher then depends on the experiences and visions of his or her personal studies (4) They then must assume the change the current (5) then logic induction is used to analyze the data, and the researchers to explore the open-ended questions rather than hypothesis testing (6) the sensitivity of the results in the social, historical context, and temporal (Fu,  2011).

            Most qualitative researchers look to the world around them with a certain perspective and context. The researchers’ point of view qualitatively affect how they perceive the social context, focus and interact with their situations, and finally analyzes and interprets the meaning of the text and data of those situations (Duffy, 2012). In the qualitative research the researcher trying to determine the meaning of the phenomenon from the point of view of the participants. This means identifying a culture of the group, then sharing and examining the patterns of their evolving behaviors. One of the elements of collecting data by engaging the participants’ activities is to observe their behavior (Creswell, 2008, p. 16).

Qualitative research process

             Merriam (2009) brilliantly conveys the qualitative research process steps. The researcher must plan carefully, anticipate opportunities for data collection, analysis of possible options preview, and display the results.

            The first step in conducting qualitative research is to formulate the research question. The Researcher in qualitative research should decide the research question, which helps to explore why people do, think, or believe in a certain thing. The researcher must understand how important to develop research questions within the framework of the qualitative research process. The research questions should give the focus of the study and identify variables or behaviors that will be explored. The development of research questions must be researchable, clear, and open-ended questions. The research questions also must allow for purification of new hypotheses (Leech & Onwuegbuzie, 2008).

            The second step in conducting qualitative research is the literature review. Review of the literature in qualitative research based on the methodology and also the use of irony, which can be set through the available research. Reviewing the literature helps detect gaps in theories that have been discussed, as well as the contradictions of previous research. The literature review helps the researcher find out what has been found in previous studies (Creswell, 2008).

            The third step of the qualitative research process is to select the research methodology. According to Merriam (2009), the four major types of qualitative research methods are phenomenology, ethnography, ground theory, and case study. (1) Phenomenology is a qualitative method illustrates the meaning of lifestyle experiences by humans as it exists in the world around us (Chamberlain, 2009). (2) Ethnography is a qualitative method studying people within their own cultural environment through intensive field work (Singer, 2009). (3) Grounded theory is a qualitative research method develops inductively from the experimental current data (Connelly, 2013). (4) Case study is qualitative research method illustrates the phenomenon in its natural context.  It can be used to ensure the credibility and reliability of the study (Houghton, Casey, Shaw & Murphy, 2013).

            The fourth step of the qualitative research process is collecting data. The data collection instruments used in qualitative research include: direct or participant observation, interviews, surveys, and focus groups (Burnard, Gill, Stewart, Treasure & Chadwick, 2008).

            The fifth step of the qualitative research process is data analysis. In the qualitative research, the researchers tend to use inductive analysis of data which means that the important themes emerged from the data (Liamputtong, 2009).

            The final step of the qualitative research process is presentation of the findings. The conclusion should include the presentation of the findings and the results of the study (Liamputtong, 2009).

Qualitative research data collection

             According to Creswell (2008), in qualitative research, there are several sources of data collection which include interviews, observation, documents, and audio or visual material. There are advantages of each type and there are restrictions on each type. A researcher in qualitative research is a data analysis instrument. A researcher's ability to interpret the data and display the results clearly makes a useful qualitative research study (Burnard et al., 2008)

            According to Sandy et al. (2011), interviewing is the method of the of data collection from humans by asking questions and getting them to verbally respond. The purpose of the interview (as a method of qualitative date collection) is to explore the views, experiences, and beliefs of motivated individuals on a specific issue. The researcher, during the interview, can understand the social phenomena much deeper than obtained it from questionnaires in quantitative method (Gill, Stewart, Treasure & Chadwick, 2008). Interviews can be used often as a pilot study to collect data in a way that before the preliminary design of the survey (Sandy et al., 2011) Qualitative interviewing requires that the researcher should have different skills such as listening intense, meticulous planning, and adequate preparation (Sandy et al., 2011).

            Observation is one of the methods of data collection in qualitative research. Observations can be done through direct contact with a person or group of people (Merriam, 2009). Researcher should observe the person or people in their natural with undisturbed as possible. Researcher must be a passive observer. The researcher may be an observer and participant, but it is better to be a passive observer. Researcher takes notes by conducting an observation as a participant and conducting an observation as an observer (Creswell, 2008).

            Documents are one of the methods of data collection in qualitative research. The qualitative researcher must have access to these documents, such as letters: memos, diaries, photographs, audio tapes, video tapes, films, articles, books, manuscripts, and other documents (Merriam, 2009).

            During the processing of qualitative data collection the ethical challenges often appear.  The researcher must obtain the prior consent of all participants in research with respect for all of them (Houghton, Shaw & Murphy, 2010). There are different ethical issues should address in qualitative research such as self-interest, interest of other, importance of principle, and protect population (Rossy, 2011).

Qualitative research data analysis

             According to Creswell (2008), data analysis in qualitative research is based on open-ended data collection. A researcher asks general questions and develops an analysis of the information submitted by the participants. Qualitative research requires the organized of the data were collected to become meaningful and this is referred to as data analysis (p.184). The researchers do turn what can be voluminous data into understandable and insightful analysis. Analysis of the data may include objective analysis, narrative analysis, semiotic or discourse analysis (Liamputtong, 2009). The process of analyzing qualitative data should start in beginning of the search. Researchers immerse themselves in their own fieldwork (interview, observation, or documents) and then re-read and analyze the data (Liamputtong, 2009). There are different types of qualitative data analysis. (1) Thematic analysis, a common type of qualitative analysis; sometimes called Interpretive Analysis, (2) Narrative analysis, including analysis of the participants stories and re-listed into a framework, (3) Discourse analysis, the task of discourse analysis is study of connection between reality and discourse, and (4) Semiotic analysis, means the study of signs systems and their meanings. Each type of data analysis is appropriate for different kinds of questions. A researcher decides what kind of data analysis is appropriate for their research. The researchers usually combine several data analysis strategies (Liamputtong, 2009). Therefore, data analysis in qualitative research involves classification, evaluation, interpretation, synthesis, and finding a pattern to generate theories (Leech & Onwuegbuzie, 2008).

Validity of qualitative research

             Validity in qualitative research relies on the skills of the researcher. The validity of the data is concerned with the ability of the instrument used to measure the qualitative research. The researcher checks for the accuracy of finding by using certain procedures (Creswell, 2008). The researcher in qualitative research has to achieve reliability and validity during the study. If the qualitative researcher did not achieve validity and reliability, his/her research will be untrusted, will lack precision, and be invalid. The validity in qualitative research is based on subjective, contextual, descriptive, evaluative, and interpretive data. The researcher must use the standards (comprehensive approach to evaluate all research) that help to test reliability and validity of the interviewers (Thomas & Magilvy, 2011). The researcher should adopt validity strategies to ensure accuracy in the process of qualitative research. These strategies include a responding investigator, methodological consistency, checking the accuracy of the qualitative finding by using quality concrete evidence, using peer information, using references, and trend analysis of the study as necessary to ensure the validity ( Creswell, 2008, p.191-192). The researcher must check the validity constantly through the analysis of the data by asking participants about hypothetical situations (Thomas & Magilvy, 2011).

The Elements of Quantitative Research

Purpose of quantitative research

             Quantitative research is used to identify the problem of data that can be transformed into usable statistics. Quantitative research uses measurable data to reveal the facts in the field of research. Quantitative research is a way to test theories through the studying of the relationship between the variables (Creswell, 2008, p 4). The main purpose of a quantitative research is to test hypotheses, consider the case and its impact, and make the expectations (Duffy & Chenail, 2008). The most common quantitative research objectives are numerical, descriptive, causal explanation, and prediction (Goertz, & Mahoney, 2013). There are six characteristics  of  the quantitative approach (1) quantifies (2) not emancipative (3) is not naturalistic or explanatory, (4) cannot use words as data (5) does not study the contents of the meaning, (6) The finding represents the viewpoint of population sample (Goertz & Mahoney, 2013). Therefore, the quantitative research is to collect numerical data, explain certain phenomenon, and answer certain questions using quantitative methods (Duffy & Chenail, 2008).

Quantitative research process

             Creswell (2008) skillfully conveys the steps of the procedures of quantitative research in the presentation of the research problem, literature review, research questions or hypotheses, identifying variables to study, research design, population and sample, data collection and analysis, and finding or results.

            The first step in conducting quantitative research is the research problem statement (Gelo et al., 2009). The research problem in quantitative research is a clear statement that refers to the purpose of the study. The research problem is the best way to address it through an understanding of the variables that affect the outcome. The problem statement concludes the context of the study, the purpose of the study, usually determines the population, and research variables (Creswell, 2008). The research problem must be a specific, clear, unambiguously, concise, and focus on the intentions of the research proposed (Gelo et al., 2009).

            The second step in conducting quantitative research is a literature review. The literature review is defined as a systematic way to evaluate, interpret, and clarify the work produced by the researchers. In the literature review, a researcher reviews actual issues that have been discussed to provide the reader with the background of what has been done in this field. The literature review is a tool to understand all the information that was discussed in a particular subject. In the literature review, the researcher reviews what is known about the research topic in order to move forward to what is, so far, unknown. The literature review is also used for the purpose of the problem, describes the existing literature, and introduces a theory (Creswell, 2008, p. 27).

            The third step in conducting quantitative research is the research questions or hypotheses. The research questions in quantitative research ask about the relationship between two or more variables (Creswell, 2008). There are three steps to develop research questions (Lipowski, 2008). First, ask interesting questions. A research question must be very specific to convert data into useful information for decision-making and problem-solving.  Second, choose the best questions for the search. Not all interesting questions make good research questions. The research questions must help lead to conclusions based on the analysis of the evidence. Third, the research questions must be transforming to testable hypotheses. The hypothesis is a statement of the relationship between the variables that predicted by the researcher (Lipowski, 2008). The research question(s) is guiding for the study. The good research question includes the population and variables that need to be studied. The researcher should answer the research questions upon completion of the study (Lipowski, 2008).

            The fourth step in conducting quantitative research is identifies variables. The researchers in quantitative research must understand identifies variables that are used in forming theories (Creswell, 2008). There are different types of variables such as independent variables, dependent variables, intervening variables, and moderating variables (Creswell, 2008).

            The fifth step in conducting quantitative research is a research design. There are different types of quantitative research designs; descriptive such as case series and case control, experimental designs, a quasi-experimental design and non-experimental design such as surveys (Horn et al., 2009).

            The sixth step in conducting quantitative research is a population and sample. The sample in quantitative research study represents the population of interest. The sample includes all people, events, objects to meet specific properties. (1) a researcher identifies people in the study, (2)  determines whether the design of the sample for this category of the population, (3) discusses procedures for the selection of a sample from the available list, and (4) indicates the number of people in a simple procedure used to calculate this number (Creswell, 2008).

            The seventh step in conducting quantitative research is data collection and analysis. The data collection in quantitative study procedures include the collaborative approaches used with participants (Creswell, 2008). There are six steps for data analysis, Creswell (2008) describes those steps as follows: (1) report information about the members of the sample, (2) discuss the method, (3) describe data for all independent and dependent variables, (4) identify the statistical procedure, (5) testing the major constructive research questions or hypotheses, and (6) construe the results (Creswell, 2008, p 152).

            The final step in conducting quantitative research is finding or results. The researchers in quantitative research must discuss the implications of the results for the study and suggestions for the future research in the topic (Creswell, 2008).

Quantitative research data collection

             According to Hoe and Hoare (2013), the quantitative research methods are more rigorous than qualitative methods, with randomized controlled trials and systematic reviews to identify evidence. There are different methods of data collection in quantitative research. (1) Surveys or non-experimental, (2) an experimental, (3) there is also secondary data collection, which includes data have been collected by someone else (Creswell, 2008). There are three different methodologies for survey: sampling, designing questions, and collecting data (Fowler, 2009). First, sampling: a census means to collect information on every individual in the population. The researcher should use probability methods for choosing sample and give all members of the population the same opportunity (Fowler, 2009). Second, question design: preparation of the questions is an important part of the survey process. A researcher must choose well understood questions to get meaningful answers (Fowler, 2009). Third, data collection: each survey involves a number of decisions that have the potential to enhance the accuracy of research. The surveys may do so by in person interviews, through the phone, by mail or via the Internet (Fowler, 2009). The experimental designs include (1) Pre-experiments, (researcher studies a single group), (2) a quasi-experiment (researcher use control group), and a true –experiments (the researcher randomly assigns group of participants) (Creswell, 2008). Experimental design includes three main components (1) manipulation of the independent variable (2) the use of a control group (3) random distribution to groups (Creswell, 2008).

            There are ethical considerations during the procedure of the quantitative data collection such as prior consent, reduce the risk of harm, the protection of privacy and confidentiality of the participants (O'neill, 2012). In the experimental research ethical issues focus on the protection of individuals who receive the intervention and not to exploit the conditions. In the survey research is often less complicated or damage than experimental studies .The researcher should be aware the essential principals to protect the participants ((Mehlman, Berg, Juengst & Kodish, 2011).

Compare Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches

            Allwood (2012) indicates that the mere distinction between quantitative and qualitative research may not be of benefit. It should be noted that the researchers must search for the pros and cons of research methods, whether qualitative or quantitative research with regard to the context, including the specific issue raised, research resource available, and not on a general abstract level.

            Quantitative and qualitative research methods are clearly and obviously different in terms of how to collect and analyze data (Gelo, Braakmann & Benetka, 2009). In quantitative research the researchers focus to collect a variety of data to build a knowledge which leads usually to numeric results or outcomes.  The quantitative research refers to the ability to gain numeric results in a large number of cases or subjects. This means that quantitative research focuses on the collection of data quickly from a diverse population. In contrast, in qualitative research the researcher tends to focus on the depth of identifying a single phenomenon to get a deep understanding. The qualitative researchers collect a lot of data about one of the phenomena for the purpose of exploring deep understanding of certain phenomenon (Thomas & Magilvy, 2011).

            One of the main differences between quantitative and qualitative research is the role of the researcher. The researcher in qualitative research serves as a data collection instrument to gain the knowledge, experience and understanding required responding to “why” the researcher is involved with environment of the study. The qualitative, in the opposite of the quantitative researcher, ends up with hypotheses and theories put forward.  The researcher collects and analyzes data and looks for patterns and meanings of interpretations based on the data in order to lead to hypotheses that have been explained (Johnston, 2010).